六 结论
在今天北部湾沿岸的广西地区所发现的玻璃器皿几乎可以肯定是汉代的本土产品,它们的形制特征非常符合汉代器物风格的演进趋势,其化学成分分析与文献材料都表明最初的玻璃原料也是在越南北部和华南地区本地制造的。从出土玻璃器皿的墓葬断代可以推定,其制作最早始于西汉中期或晚期,并一直延续到东汉。在遥远的印度南部发现了一块很可能与这些玻璃器皿同类的玻璃碎片,同时出土的还有典型汉式风格的玻璃耳珰和玛瑙耳珰,它们应该是按照中国客户的要求在当地定制的。这一考古证据证实了中国南部地区与东南亚以及印度之间的海上贸易往来,以及双方交换代表身份地位的奢侈品。它如同最近在东南亚进行的考古发掘工作一般,支持和补充了《汉书》记录的这一商贸网络的存在。
附识:
本文是我参加2008年6月3~5日在北京举办的“第四次东亚考古世界会议”的会议论文修订版。在会上,我同与会学者进行了富有成效的讨论,也获得了很多资料图片。在此我要真诚地向以下同行和机构表示感谢:安家瑶(北京),罗伯特·H.布里尔(Robert H.Brill)(科宁),朱迪思·卡梅伦(Judith Cameron)(堪培拉),凯瑟琳·德拉库尔(Catherine Delacour)(巴黎),让·保罗·德罗什(Jean-Paul Desroches)(巴黎),西蒙娜·格尔斯梅尔(Simone Griessmayer)(之前在海德堡,现在在苏黎世),广西省博物馆(南宁),汉墓博物馆(合浦),黄启善(南宁),詹姆斯·兰克顿(James Lankton)(伦敦),老街省博物馆(老街),罗斯玛丽·里尔克(Rosemarie Lierke)(巴德斯瓦尔巴赫),梅道芬(Ulrike Middendorf)(海德堡大学),广西壮族自治区博物馆(南宁),阮江海(Nguyen Giang Hai)(河内),范明越(Phan Minh )(河内),安德列亚斯·赖内克(Andreas Reinecke)(波恩),华戴尔·舒思深(Walter Shorenstein)(旧金山市),以及玛丽安·斯特恩(E.Marianne Stern)(希尔弗瑟姆),特别感谢陈亮(海德堡)对中文译文所作的细心校对。
Han Period Glass Vessels in the Early Tongking Gulf Region
Brigitte Borell
Archaeological investigations in Han dynasty tombs in Guangxi,China,have uncovered a small number of unusual glass vessels.The chronology of the tombs suggests that their initial production started around the middle or late Western Han period(206 BCE-9 CE)and continued well into the Eastern Han period(25-220 CE).Although first thought to be imports,later chemical analyses of some of this glassware have disproved a Mediterranean or Western Asiatic origin.This paper argues that these Han period glass vessels were in fact a local product,manufactured in the Tongking Gulf region of modern northern Vietnam and southern China.The glass vessels,small rounded cups,shallow bowls,and cups on a high foot,can now be recognized as a well-established group of glass vessels with their own stylistical and typological characteristics.According to the chemical analyses of their glass,a potash glass(K2O-SiO2 glass)with a low lime content was used,which is known as the predominant type of glass used in the area of Guangxi in the Han period.
Among other archaeological finds,fragments of this class of glass vessels found in the area of the Kra Isthmus(Thailand)and at Arikamedu(India)provide further material evidence of the extensive trade relations,described so long ago in the Han Shu,that existed between Tongking Gulf ports and Southeast Asia and India.
Key Words:Glass Vessel,Han Period,Tongking Gulf Region,Focal Product
(执行编辑:罗燚英)
[1] 作者系德国海德堡大学古典考古学博士、独立学者,译者刘焱鸿系广东第二师范学院教育发展力研修学院讲师。
[2] Cecila Braghin,“Polychrome and Monochrome Glass of the Warring States and Han Periods”,in Cecilia Braghin,ed.,Chinese Glass:Archaeological Studies on the Uses and Social Context of Glass Artifacts from the Warring States to the Northern Song Period(Fifth Century B.C.to Twelfth Century A.D.),Orientalia Venetiana 14 Florence:Leo Olschki,2002,pp.31-34.
[3] Pham Minh Huyen,“Mot trung tam van minh co dai dau nguon Song Hong o dat Viet”,Khao Co Hoc(1997),pp.38-63;Pham Minh Huyen,“Dong Son Drums Discovered in Lao Cai Town in 1993”,Tonan Ajia kokogaku(Journal of Southeast Asian Archaeology)17(1997),pp.45-59(group 5);Brigitte Borell,“The Han Period Glass Dish from Lao Cai,Vietnam”,paper presented at Nineteenth Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Congress,Hanoi,Vietnam,29 November-5 December 2009.在越南北宁省(Bac Ninh)还发现另外一只玻璃碗,参看平野裕子(Yuko Hirano),“Regional Trade and Its Development in the Iron Age of Vietnam:From the Study of Glass Ornaments”,Vietnam Archaeology 3(2008),p.46.
[4] James K.Chin指出,目前在合浦地区大概已发现五千座汉墓,“Ports,Merchants,Chieftains and Eunuchs:Reading Maritime Commerce of Early Guangdong”,in Shing Müller,Thomas Höllmann,and Putao Gui,ed.,Guangdong:Archaeology and Early Texts(Zhou-Tang),South China and Maritime Asia Series 13,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz,2004,p.219;Francis Allard,“Frontiers and Boundaries:The Han Empire from Its Southern Periphery”,in Miriam T.Stark,ed.,Archaeology of Asia,Malden,Mass.:Blackwell,2006,pp.240-242。
[5] 黄启善:《广西发现的汉代玻璃器》,《文物》1992年第9期;黄启善:《广西汉代玻璃与海上丝绸之路》,载于吴传钧、吕余生编《海上丝绸之路研究:中国,北海合浦海上丝绸之路始发港理论研讨会论文集》,科学出版社,2006,第154~163页;黄启善:《广西汉代玻璃与越人海上丝绸之路的探索》,载于中国国家博物馆、广西壮族自治区博物馆编《瓯骆遗粹:广西百越文化文物精品集》,中国社会科学出版社,2006,第268~281页。
[6] 黄启善:《广西汉代玻璃与海上丝绸之路》,第161~162页;赵虹霞、李青会、干福熹、承焕生:《广西合浦地区出土汉代古玻璃的质子激发X荧光分析》,《核技术》2007年总第30期。在黄泥岗的M1所见尤其重要,除了玻璃杯外,还出土了一些装饰性玉器,参见《瓯骆遗粹》,第141~143、258页。它的墓主是合浦郡守陈褒。这一消息承蒙熊昭明先生在2009年告知。
[7] 据贵县汽车路M5发掘所见,它们被细心地安置在一个青铜盘里;而在红头岭M34,玻璃杯则被放在一个漆器里面。参见黄启善《广西汉代玻璃与海上丝绸之路》,第155~156、268、270页。
[8] Catherine Delacour,Arts Asia antiques,2005,p.60,p.137,figs.,36-37;关善明(Simon Kwan),Early Chinese Glass,Hong Kong:Art Museum,Chinese University of Hong Kong,2001,fig.49,nos.9 &12,fig.50,5 and 6;韦壮凡、容小宁编《广西文物珍品》,广西美术出版社,2002,第232号;黄启善:《广西汉代玻璃与越人海上丝绸之路的探索》,第269~270页,图7、9。
[9] A Chorus of Colors:Chinese Glass from Three American Collections,San Francisco:Asian Art Museum of San Francisco,1995,p.34,no.4;Brigitte Borell,“Trade and Glass Vessels Along the Maritime Silk Road”,in B.Zorn and A.Hilgner ed.,Glass Along the Silk Road,Mainz:Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Tagungen,2010,fig.11.
[10] 在公元前1世纪至公元1世纪的地中海地区,这种玻璃工艺的制作技法非常常见;但此后就被公元前1世纪发明、随后逐渐发展的玻璃吹制技术所取代,见E.Marianne Stern and Birgit Schlick-Nolte,Early Glass of the Ancient World,1600 B.C.-A.D.50:Ernesto Wolf Collection,Stuttgart:Hatje,1994,pp.71-81;Rosemarie Lierke,Die nicht-geblasenen antiken Gefäβe:The Non-Blown Ancient Glass Vessels,Offenbach/Main:Deutsche Glastechnische Gesellschaft,2009,pp.30-39。
[11] 安家瑶:《早期中国玻璃器》,trans.Matthew Henderson,Oriental Ceramic Society Translations 12,Hong Kong:Millennia,1987,p.6,p.35,nos.5-8;后安家瑶进一步修订其学说,“Ancient Glass Trade in Southeast Asia”,in Amara Srisuchat ed.,Ancient Trades and Cultural Contacts in Southeast Asia,Bangkok:Office of the National Culture Commission,1996,p.131。
[12] 史美光、何欧里、周福征,“Investigation on Some Chinese Potash Glasses Excavated in Han Dynasty Tombs”,in Hari C.Bhardwaj ed.,Archaeometry of Glass:Proceedings of the Archaeometry Session of the XIV International Congress on Glass,1986,New Delhi,India,Calcutta:Indian Ceramic Society,1987,pp.15-20;安家瑶,Ancient Glass Trade in Southeast Asia,p.131;Rose Kerr and Nigel Wood,Science and Civilisation in China,vol.5,Chemistry and Chemical Technology,part 12:Ceramic Technology,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2004,pp.1464-1467,pp.1625-1627。
[13] 黄启善,“A Preliminary Study of Han Dynasty Glass in Guangxi”,in Robert H.Brill and John Martin ed.,Scientific Research in Early Chinese Glass,Corning,N.Y.:Corning Museum of Glass,1991,pp.185-192;Robert H.Brill’s comment in Fan Shimin and Zhou Baozhong,“Some Glass in the Museum of Chinese History”,in Scientific Research in Early Chinese Glass,p.197;Robert H.Brill,“Scientific Research in Early Asian Glass”,in Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Congress on Glass,Beijing,October 1995,vol.1,Invited Lectures,Beijing:International Academic Publishers,1995,pp.270-279;Robert H.Brill,“Chemical Analyses of Some Glasses from the Collection of Simon Kwan”,in Kwan,Early Chinese Glass,p.450;干福熹、承焕生、李青会:《中国古代玻璃的起源——中国最早的古代玻璃研究》,《中国科学E辑:技术科学》2006年第6期,第701~713页,特别是第709~710页;《中国科学E辑:技术科学》2007年第3期,第382~391页,特别是第388~389页;Robert H.Brill and Hiroshi Shirahata,“The Second Kazuo Yamasaki TC-17 Lecture on Asian Glass:Recent Lead-Isotope Analyses of Some Asian Glasses with Remarks on Strontium-Isotope Analyses”,in干福熹(Gan Fuxi),Robert H.Brill,and田守云(Tian Shouyun)ed.,Ancient Glass Research Along the Silk Road,Singapore:World Scientific,2009,pp.156-158。
[14] 参见广州市文物管理委员会编《广州汉墓》,文物出版社,1981,图录78,1;97,7,11;166,6;Olov Janse,Archaeological Research in Indo-China,vol.2 Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1951,pl.103,1;120,2.
[15] 可参Susan N.Erickson,“Boshanlu—Mountain Censers of the Western Han Period:A Typological and Iconological Analysis”,Archives of Asian Art 45(1992),pp.6-28,figs.4-8.
[16] 史美光、何欧里、周福征:《一批中国汉墓出土钾玻璃的研究》,第15、18页;黄启善:《广西汉代玻璃初探》,第188页;Robert H.Brill,Chemical Analyses of Some Glasses,p.450;韦壮凡、容小宁编《广西文物珍品》,第181页。
[17] 在古代,玻璃制造和玻璃加工是两套独立的工艺,需要不同的技术和技艺。玻璃制作技术是从原材料中提取玻璃成分;而玻璃加工是将铸块或者玻璃碎片重新熔解。
[18] Robert H.Brill,Chemical Analyses of Early Glasses,p.156,no.5770,p.358,no.5770;黄启善:《广西汉代玻璃与海上丝绸之路》,第158页,图片1-8、27;黄启善:《广西汉代玻璃与越人海上丝绸之路的探索》,第272、274页,图片1-8、56。
[19] 史美光、何欧里、周福征:《一批中国汉墓出土钾玻璃的研究》,第19页;Kerr and Wood,Ceramic Technology,pp.464-66,632;James Lankton and Laure Dussubieux,“Early Glass in Asian Maritime Trade:A Review and an Interpretation of Compositional Analyses”,Journal of Glass Studies 48(2006),p.136.
[20] Julian Henderson,The Science and Archaeology of Materials:An Investigation of Inorganic Materials,London:Routledge,2000,pp.24-25,38-39,48-51;干福熹:《中国古代玻璃的起源和发展》,载干福熹(Gan Fuxi),Robert H.Brill,and田守云(Tian Shouyun)ed.,Ancient Glass Research Along the Silk Road,pp.7-8.
[21] 钾玻璃系统(K2O-SiO2)的石灰(CaO)的含量低,铝氧(Al2O3)的含量适中,Lankton and Dussubieux,“Early Glass in Asian Maritime Trade”,p.136。
[22] 赵虹霞、李青会、干福熹、承焕生:《广西合浦地区出土汉代古玻璃的质子激发X荧光分析》,第27~33页;李青会、干福熹、王伟昭、熊昭明等:《广西合浦县出土汉代玻璃器的质子激发X射线(PIXE)检测和研究》,载干福熹(Gan Fuxi),Robert H.Brill,and田守云(Tian Shouyun)ed.,Ancient Glass Research Along the Silk Road,pp.397-412。
[23] Andreas Reinecke,Neue Entdeckungen zur Sa-Huynh-Kultur:Das Gräberfeld Go Ma Voi und das kulturelle Umfeld in Mittelvietnam,Cologne:Linden Soft,2002,pp.189-197.
[24] 葛洪著、王明撰《抱朴子内篇校释》,中华书局,1985,第22页。在此感谢梅道芬(U.Middendorf)和奥华比(R.Overbey)两位的帮忙翻译。这里尤其引起笔者兴趣的,是葛洪用“铸”字来描绘玻璃碗的制作工艺,而它的本义是铸造金属;因此在文本情境里面可能暗示这种玻璃碗是将热的玻璃熔液灌模成型。
[25] 公元220年华南被划分为两个大州:交州和广州。(译者注:交广分治的时间应该是孙武黄武五年即226年)参见罗樾(Michael Loewe),“Guangzhou:The Evidence of the Standard Histories from the Shi ji to the Chen shu,a Preliminary Survey”,in Müller,Höllmann,and Gui,Guangdong:Archaeology and Early Texts,p.59,78,map,bottom。
[26] 参见Fan and Zhou,“Some Glass in the Museum of Chinese History”,pp.196-197,fig.4,特别参看R.H.Brill,评论玻璃器上凹弦纹的第六条分析,p.200;安家瑶,“Ancient Glass Trade in Southeast Asia”,p.132,fig.10;Kwan,Early Chinese Glass,p.48 fig.50,1;安家瑶,“The Art of Glass Along the Silk Road”,in China:Dawn of a Golden Age(200-750 AD),ed.James C.Y.Watt(New York:Metropolitan Museum of Art,2004),58,fig.4;杨伯达:《中国美术分类全集四》,《中国金银玻璃珐琅器全集1:玻璃器》,河北美术出版社,2004,第59条;Borell,“Trade and Glass Vessels Along the Maritime Silk Road”,fig.13,1.
[27] 河南南阳市文物考古研究所:《河南南阳市陈鹏村68号汉墓》,《考古》2008年第10期,图7.5,2.4;Borell,“Trade and Glass Vessels Along the Maritime Silk Road”,fig.13.2.
[28] 史美光、何欧里、周福征:《一批中国汉墓出土钾玻璃的研究》,第15、18页;黄启善:《广西汉代玻璃初探》,第188页;Robert Brill,Chemical Analyses of Some Glasses,p.450;韦壮凡、容小宁编《广西文物珍品》,第181页。
[29] 参见安家瑶《中国的早期玻璃器皿》,第25页;亦参Joseph Needham,Ling Wang,and Kenneth Robinson.Science and Civilisation in China,vol.4,Physics and Physical Technology,Part I,Physics,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1962,pp.107-108;安家瑶,“Glass Vessels and Ornaments of the Wei,Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties Periods”,pp.46-47.
[30] 合浦附近的石湾镇有丰富的西汉城镇遗址,但尚未完全发掘,参见“Starting Point of Marine Silk Road Confirmed”,China Today,December 2002,http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/English/e2002/y200212/c4.htm,accessed 3 June 2010.
[31] 安家瑶:《中国的早期玻璃器皿》,pp.2-3,fig.1;p.35 no.4;p.40 no.3;p.44 analysis 3;Kwan,Early Chinese Glass,p.48,fig.50,11;An Jiayao,“Art of Glass Along the Silk Road”,p.58,fig.47.这是公元58年广陵王刘荆的墓葬,参见Borell,“Trade and Glass Vessels Along the Maritime Silk Road”,fig.1.
[32] R.E.Mortimer Wheeler,A.Ghosh,and Krishna Deva,“Arikamedu:An Indo-Roman Trading Station on the East Coast of India”,Ancient India 2(1946),p.102,fig.42,2,and plate 34,B,1;Vimala Begley et al.,The Ancient Port of Arikamedu:New Excavations and Researches,1989-1992,Paris:école Française d’Extrême Orient,1996,2004,Vol.1,p.64,fig.2.33.
[33] Lionel Casson,The Periplus Maris Erythraei:Text with Introduction,Translation,and Commentary,Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1989,pp.88-89,pp.228-229.
[34] E.Marianne Stern,“Early Roman Export Glass in India”,in Vimala Begley and Richard D.De Puma ed.,Rome and India:The Ancient Sea Trade,Madison:University of Wisconsin Press,1991,pp.117-118.在东南亚地区发现的其他地中海风格的玻璃器,可参Stern and Schlick-Nolte,Early Glass of the Ancient World,pp.72-79,esp.pp.308-309,no.89,pp.320-322,nos.95-96;Peter Francis,Jr.,“Beads and Selected Small Finds from the 1989-1992 Excavations”,in Begley et al.,Ancient Port of Arikamedu,Vol.2,pp.518-519.
[35] Vimala Begley,“Arikamedu Reconsidered”,American Journal of Archaeology 87(1983),p.473;Begley et al.,Ancient Port of Arikamedu,Vol.1,pp.19-25,pp.107-113;Vol.2,pp.5-6.
[36] Moreshwar G.Dikshit,History of Indian Glass,Bombay:University of Bombay,1969,pp.50-51;Samarendra N.Sen and Mamata Chaudhuri,Ancient Glass and India,New Delhi:Indian National Science Academy,1985,p.57,p.164.
[37] 这只玻璃碗看起来不太像是在印度制作,而且当地的早期历史中也没有以此作为饮食器的传统,原因可能是与宗教禁忌的礼仪习惯有关。参见Kirti N.Chaudhuri,Asia Before Europe:Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1990,p.332.
[38] 它们主要是在东岸素叻他尼府省(Suratthani)的Ta Chana和西岸拉廊省(Ranong)的Bang Kluay发现的,参见James Lankton et al.,“Chinese Han Period Glass Cup Fragments in Peninsular Thailand”;Brigitte Borell,“Fragments of Han Period Glass Vessels from Southern Thailand”,2009年11月29日~12月5日河内第九届印度洋—太平洋史前协会年会提交论文。
[39] 至少有九件玛瑙耳珰,参看Francis,“Beads and Selected Small Finds”,pp.296-297,table 13;520-21,figs.7.51,7.52.但很遗憾它们不是在未干扰考古地层环境中被发现的。
[40] 广州市文物管理委员会编《广州汉墓》,图90.6;114.6;174.5;广西合浦县博物馆:《广西合浦县母猪岭汉墓的发掘》,《考古》2007年第2期,图8.5,母猪岭M6;Brigitte Borell,“The Glass Vessels from Guangxi and the Maritime Silk Road in the Han Period(206 B.C.E.to 220 C.E.)”,2008年9月1~5日荷兰莱顿第十二届东南亚考古学家协会(欧洲)年会会议论文(待刊)。
[41] Bérénice Bellina,Cultural Exchange Between India and Southeast Asia:Production and Distribution of Hard Stone Ornaments(VI c.BC-VI c.AD),Paris:Maison des Sciences de l’Homme,2007,p.48,p.53,p.56.
[42] 更多细节研究,可参王赓武,“The Nanhai Trade:A Study of the Early History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea”,Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 31,pt.2(1959),pp.8-30;Yü Ying-shih,Trade and Expansion in Han China:A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relation,Berkeley:University of California Press,1967,pp.172-187;Yü Ying-shih,“Han Foreign Relations”,in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe ed.,Cambridge History of China,vol.1,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986,ed.451-60;Gang Deng,Chinese Maritime Activities and Socioeconomic Development,c.2100 B.C.-1900 A.D,Westport,Conn.:Greenwood Press,1997,pp.6-7;Michel Jacq-Hergoualc’h,The Malay Peninsula:Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road(100 BC-AD 1300),trans.Victoria Hobson,Handbuch der Orientalistik,Sect.3,Southeast Asia 13,Leiden:Brill,2002,pp.18-21;Loewe,“Guangzhou”;Chin,“Ports,Merchants,Chieftains and Eunuchs”;Allard,“Frontiers and Boundaries”,pp.233-238.
[43] Michael Loewe,“The Former Han Dynasty”,in Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe ed.,Cambridge History of China,vol.1,pp.169-170;Yü Ying-shih,“Han Foreign Relations”,p.458.
[44] Joseph Needham,Science and Civilization in China,vol.4,Physics and Physical Technology part III:Civil Engineering and Nautics,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1971,pp.441-442,445-446;Sabine Werner,“Zur frühen chinesischen Seefahrt”,in Hermann Müller-Karpe ed.,Zur geschichtlichen Bedeutung der frühen Seefahrt,Munich:C.H.Beck,1982,pp.88-89;Deng,Chinese Maritime Activities,pp.24-27;Thomas Höllmann,“Panyu:Die südliche Pforte nach China während der Han-Zeit”,in Margarete Prüch and von der Schulenburg ed.,Schätze für König Zhao Mo:Das Grab von Nan Yue,Frankfurt:Braus,1998,p.111.
[45] Deng,Chinese Martime Activities,pp.77-78;Höllmann,“Panyu”,pp.110-111.
[46] 尽管James K.Chin认为最早的海上贸易区域位于北部湾,日南、徐闻以及合浦是主要港口,但弗朗西斯·阿拉德(Francis Allard)认为番禺仍然保持其作为重要港口的地位,虽然乘船地点是在更南和更西边的港湾地区。参看Chin,“Ports,Merchants,Chieftains and Eunuchs”,p.223;Francis Allard,“Frontier and Boundaries”,p.237.
[47] 班固:《汉书》卷28下《地理志》,中华书局,2002,第1671页;参见王赓武,“The Nanhai Trade”,pp.19-20;cf.also Angela Schottenhammer,“Schiffahrt und überseebeziehungen bis ins 3.Jahrhundert:Ein überblick”,in Michael Friedrich ed.,Han-Zeit:Festschrift für Hans Stumpfeldt aus Anlass seines 65.Geburtstages,Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz,2006,pp.611-612;Roderich Ptak,Die maritime Seidenstrasse:Küstenräume,Seefahrt und Handel in vorkolonialer Zeit,Munich:C.H.Beck,2007,pp.86-87.
[48] Joseph Needham,Science and Civilization in China,vol.4,Physics and Physical Technology part III:Civil Engineering and Nautics,p.444.
[49] Heidrun Schenk,“The Dating and Historical Value of Rouletted Ware”,Zeitschrift für Archäologie Aussereuropäischer Kulture,1(2006),pp.123-152.
[50] Sophie Péronnet,“Overview of Han Artifacts in Southeast Asia with Special Reference to the Recently Excavated Material from Khao Sam Kaeo in Southern Thailand”,paper presented at Twelfth International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists,Leiden,1-5 September 2008;Bérénice Bellina-Pryce and Praon Silapanth,“Weaving Cultural Identities on Trans-Asiatic Networks:Upper Thai-Malay Peninsula—an Early Socio-Political Landscape”,Bulletin de l’école Française d’Extrême-Orient 93(2006),p.278,fig.10;关于克拉地峡区域以及半岛的假定横渡路线研究,参见Jacq-Hergoualc’h,Malay Peninsula,esp.pp.30-32,pp.42-44,pp.82-89.
[51] Phaedra Bouvet,“étude préliminaire de céramiques indienne et ‘indianisantes’ du site de Khao Sam Kaeo IVe-IIe siècles av.J.-C”,Bulletin de l’école Française d’Extrême-Orient 93(2006),pp.353-390.